Introduction Psychiatric disorders are characterized by complex and ever-changing clinical features, and from a pathological perspective, they involve multiple abnormal neurotransmitters [1], brain regions, and neural circuits [2-5]. Therapeutic progress has long been challenged by the diagnostic and aetiological heterogeneity of psychiatric disorders [6]. Psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies used alone or in combination have been shown to exert clinical benefits compared with placebo or treatment-asusual. However, the effectiveness of these treatments remains unsatisfactory [7]. Neuromodulation, such as electrical, magnetic, optical, acoustic, and thermal modalities [8], offers alternatives to pharmacological treatment and psychotherapy and has attracted an increasing amount of attention from peers for the management of psychiatric disorders (Table 1).